Among various two-dimensional materials, titanium oxide nanotubes (TiO2 nanotubes) are stable and environmentally friendly, and their electronic, optical, and dielectric properties can be tuned by surface modification. Researchers used tungstic acid covalently bonded to titanium oxide nanotubes (W-TNT) for the first time as an ion-exchange filler for the fabrication of proton exchange composite membranes. The tungstate group (H2WO4) contains exchangeable protons similar to the sulfonic acid group (SO3H) and can also be used as an ion exchanger.

Titanium oxide nanotubes (TNT) were synthesized by hydrothermal method and covalently grafted with tungstic acid (ion exchange group) on their surface. The synthesized tungstate functionalized TNT (W-TNT) was characterized by SEM, TEM, and XRD analysis, and the successful grafting of the tungstate group was confirmed by FTIR and solid-state NMR techniques.

The cutting tool material is the most important aspect of the cutting process in machining operations, especially when machining difficult-to-cut materials such as titanium, cobalt alloys, and CoCrMo alloys, where high heat and mechanical stresses caused at the tool edge are major problems.

Many researchers have analyzed the effect of coolants on tool wear, cutting temperatures, and cutting forces when facing and turning cobalt alloys and CoCrMo alloys for machining surface integrity. Surface integrity is crucial for medical applications, especially for surgical implants and devices. Cobalt alloys and Co/Cr/Mo alloys machining operations typically generate residual stresses through the outer layers of the machined surface of the workpiece, and these residual stresses present a potential risk in terms of crack generation and extension and affect the corrosion resistance of surgical implants.

Time and cost constraints are necessary to reduce the manufacturing costs of Cobalt alloys and CoCrMo alloys. Some of these elements are obtained by mechanical machining and it is necessary to optimize the machining parameters for these products. Several researchers have conducted experimental studies on the machining of cobalt-based refractory materials in order to establish optimal cutting conditions for different cutting parameters. They have used several optimization techniques based on RSM methods, using sequential quadratic programming algorithms and Kriging interpolation to solve a constrained problem.

Research into the processing of cobalt alloys and CoCrMo alloys, which are widely used in manufacturing and aerospace, began a long time ago. Prior to that, all research was focused on improving material properties such as hardness, toughness, strength, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and high-temperature resistance. Cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys are an improved material from the cobalt family and are used in a variety of biomedical applications.

In general, the term machinability can be defined as how easily the material can be machined or cut to the desired shape in terms of tool and process conditions, taking into account surface finish and tool life. The machinability of cobalt chromium molybdenum alloys is comparable to other advanced materials such as nickel and titanium alloys, which are classified as difficult-to-cut materials due to their unique characteristics of high strength, toughness, wear resistance, and low thermal conductivity.

Cobalt chromium molybdenum alloys are considered advanced materials and are popular in a variety of engineering and medical applications. However, it is classified as a difficult material to machine due to its unique combination of properties, including high strength, toughness, wear resistance, and low thermal conductivity.

The researchers found that tungsten disulfide (WS2) can be converted into a direct semiconductor with a band gap of 2.1 eV by controlling the chemical composition and number of layers due to the quantum confinement effect. In addition, WS2 has better saturable absorption properties than graphene and carbon nanotubes in the near- and mid-infrared bands. Due to these excellent properties, it is increasingly being used in laser saturable absorbers (SAs).