Titanium oxide nanotubes (TNT) were synthesized by hydrothermal method and covalently grafted with tungstic acid (ion exchange group) on their surface. The synthesized tungstate functionalized TNT (W-TNT) was characterized by SEM, TEM, and XRD analysis, and the successful grafting of the tungstate group was confirmed by FTIR and solid-state NMR techniques.

Many researchers have analyzed the effect of coolants on tool wear, cutting temperatures, and cutting forces when facing and turning cobalt alloys and CoCrMo alloys for machining surface integrity. Surface integrity is crucial for medical applications, especially for surgical implants and devices. Cobalt alloys and Co/Cr/Mo alloys machining operations typically generate residual stresses through the outer layers of the machined surface of the workpiece, and these residual stresses present a potential risk in terms of crack generation and extension and affect the corrosion resistance of surgical implants.

The cutting tool material is the most important aspect of the cutting process in machining operations, especially when machining difficult-to-cut materials such as titanium, cobalt alloys, and CoCrMo alloys, where high heat and mechanical stresses caused at the tool edge are major problems.

Time and cost constraints are necessary to reduce the manufacturing costs of Cobalt alloys and CoCrMo alloys. Some of these elements are obtained by mechanical machining and it is necessary to optimize the machining parameters for these products. Several researchers have conducted experimental studies on the machining of cobalt-based refractory materials in order to establish optimal cutting conditions for different cutting parameters. They have used several optimization techniques based on RSM methods, using sequential quadratic programming algorithms and Kriging interpolation to solve a constrained problem.